*Islam means "submission," signifying obedience to the rule and will of Allah, the only deity recognized in the strictly Monotheistic religion.
*Muslim is "one who has submitted"
-began as one man's unqualified faith in Allah, but spread rapidly, making Islam stand alongside the Byzantine empire
*Islamic society changed over time.
-originally reflected the nomadic Arabians
-influenced by other societies, including Persians, Greeks, Indians
-created a new society from this blend
-transformed absorbed traditions, creating a larger society called dar al-Islam- "The House of Islam," or areas under Islamic rule.
Prophet and His World
*Islam rose in the Arabian peninsula and reflected the conditions of the homeland.
-desert covers most of the peninsula
-agriculture only possible in Yemen in the south and oases like Medina
-people cope by being nomads, a.k.a. bedouins, who organized in family and clan groups
-family and clan bond very strong
*Arabia was prominent in long-distance trade.
-goods came in on ports by the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Red Sea, and were transported by camels to Palmyra and Damascus giving access to the Mediterranean.
-After 300 CE, important link between the east China and India with the Persia and Byzantine as sea routes became more popular when the classical empires weakened. Question 1:
Muhammad and His Message
A. Muhammad's Early Life *Muhammad ibn Abdullah is born into the nomadic Bedouin 570 CE to merchants in Mecca, loosing both parents by 6. -after a tough childhood, worked for a wealthy widow, Khadija, and married her in 595 -gained a bit in social prominence with this *Muhammad became a merchant by thirty. -saw people of different religious and cultural traditions, from gods, goddesses, demons, and nature spirits, to the Jewish merchants, to the north prominent Christianity -in a basic sense, understood Judaism and Christianity
B. Muhammad's Spiritual Transformation
*Approaching 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad had visions from archangel Gabriel, God's messenger, giving messages and revelations from Allah.
-the visions started after "period of seclusion on a mountaintop near Mecca" (ABC-CLIO)
-convinced worshiping and recognizing god is wicked
-Allah soon will bring judgement, rewarding the righteous and punishing the wicked
-did not set out to combine Arab, Jewish and Christian religions, but these three, along with Zoroastrianism, influenced Islam
*He spread his faith to family and friends leading to a zealous and expanding minority in Mecca by 620 CE. Question 2
C. The Quran
*He originally presented orally, but followers created texts of Muhammad's teachings.
*In early 650s, they were compiled and issued as the poetry-styled, moving, holy book of Islam, the Quran ("recitation")
-other guidance texts are the hadith, sayings of Muhammad and his deeds, appearing between 900 to 1100 CE as Quran Gides
-other documents described Muhammad's life, customs, and commentaries
-114 chapters are in the Quran
Muhammad's Migration to Medina
A. Conflict at Mecca
*Others were troubled with Islam's growth.
-truck polytheistic Arabs as offensive and dangerous
-wealthy ruling merchants were riled at Muhammad's denouncing of greed as wickedness that would be punished
-attack on idolatry is economic treats to owners of shrines attracting pilgrims, including Ka'ba's (a cube shaped building) immensely popular shrine.
-led to persecution in Mecca
B. The Hijra *Some followers fled to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia). *Muhammad stayed in Mecca until 622 BCE, until he fled to Yathrib, a rival trading city 314 km north of Mecca -names city Medina ("the city of the prophet") -known as the hijra ("migration"), and is starting point of the Islamic calendar. Question 3
C. The Umma
*In Mecca, Muhammad focused on the moral and religious dimensions of his faith, but in Medina, he needed to provide practical guidance to his exiled follower too.
*Created umma ("Commujnity of the Faithful") with a social and legal code
-cared for people in the umma, led in daily prayers, battled Mecca as enemies, and provided for the poor
-made charity important
D. The "Seal of the Prophets" *In Medina, Muhammad began to refer to him self as "the seal of the prophets" - the final prophet through whom Allah would reveal his message to humankind -accepted beliefs of Jewish and Christian prophets like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, along with their texts and monotheism, as Allah seemed to be the same God. -yet, Muhammad's message was a more complete revelation of Allah and his will Question 4
Excerpt: The Quran on Allah and His Expectations of Human Kind -Allah is benevolent and merciful -God has forgiveness and rewards to those who are believers, devout, truthful, enduring, modest, alm giving, fast, guide private parts, and Remember god. -Muhammad is the apostle of God -The lord cares for you, and believes in helping you -God is created by no one and can do anything
The Establishment of Islam in Arabia
A. Muhammad's Return to Mecca *Muhammad ultimately planned to return to Mecca-both their home and leading city of Arabia -630 Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca, forcing elites to worship and dedicate th emselves to Allah -all pagan shrines were destroyed and replaced with mosques except for the Ka'ba -Ka'ba preserved, not because it was the home of the deity, but as a symbol of Mecca's greatness -Muhammad made the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba in 632 (the first hajj)
-this "former idol sanctuary [became] a shrine and pilgrimage point for Muslims" (ABC-CLIO) -his established the hajj, and by the time of the prophet's death, Muhammad's conquered most of Arabia B. The Five Pillars of Islam *These are the Islamic faith foundations. 1)Muslims must acknowledge Allah as the only god and Muhammad as his prophet 2)They must pray to Allah daily while facing Mecca 3) They must observe a fast during daylight hours of the month of Ramadan. 4)They must contribute alms for the relief of the weak and poor. 5) Finally, in honor of Muhammad's visits to Mecca in 629 and 632, those who are physically and financially able must undertake the hajj and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca -many schools and sects arose, but the five pillars are the basic binding to the umma
C. Jihad *Some believe jihad ("struggle") is an additional obligation. -some say it requires them to combat vice and evil -others say they should go against ignorance and unbelief by seeking converts -some say Muslims should wage war against unbelievers Question 5
D. Islamic Law: The Sharia
*The sharia is the Islamic holy law, beyond the basic Five Pillars.
-drew inspirations by Quran and Muhammad's life
-gives guidance
-transformed Islam into a way of life, more than religion (like the 10 Commandments of Christianity)
The Expansion of Islam
*Muhammad's death (632) unraveled the religion temporarily. He also made no plans for a predecessor.
-many towns and bedouin clans took his death as a chance to renounce the faith and break free from Mecca
-soon the Islamic community underwent military expansion to expand political and social influence past Arabia
The Early Caliphs and the Umayyad Dynasty
A. The Caliph
-Muhammad's advisors chose Abu Bakr, a close friend of Muhammad, to serve as caliph (deputy)
-he led the umma not as a prophet but as a substitute for Muhammad
-he became head of state for Islamic community, chief judge, religious leader, and military commander
-Under Bakr, bedouin clans and towns were almost forced to recognize faith of Islam again
B. The Expansion of Islam
-they carried the religion and authority to Byzantine and Sasanid territories
-attacked when empires were exhausted from conflicts with each other and when facing internal uprisings
-633-637CE Muslims seized Byzantine Syria and Palestine and took most of Mesopotamia from the Sasanids
-640'sCE they conquered Byzantine Egypt and north Africa
-651 they ended the Sasanid dynasty and gained control of Persia
-711 they conquered the Hindu kingdom of Sind in northwestern India
-711-718 they extended their authority to northwestern Africa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltor, conquering most of the Iberian peninsula and threatened the Frankish kingdom in Gaul
-By the mid eighth century there was a huge Islamic empire
-However, soon they faced problems with governance and administration
-A big problem was the selection of caliphs
-First after Muhammad's death, the caliphs were determined by the most powerful Arab clans
-Soon political ambitions, personal differences, and clan loyalties complicated the decisions
-These complications resulted in factions and parties in the Islamic community
C. The Shia -The complications led to the Shia sect -This sect is the most important and enduring version of the faith observed by a majority of Muslims, known as Sunni Islam. -It originated as a party supporting the appointment of Ali and his descendants as caliphs -Ali was a cousin and son in law of Muhammad -He served as the fourth caliph from 656-661CE, but his enemies killed him, killed many of his relatives, and imposed their own candidate as caliph -The Shia party wanted to return the caliphate to the line of Ali -It survived by adopting doctrines and rituals from the Sunnis (traditionalists)- the accepted the legitimacy of the early caliphs -Shia partisans observed holy days for leaders and taught that the descedants of Ali were infallible, sinless, and divinely appointed to rule the Islamic community Question 6
D. The Umayyad Dynasty -The establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750CE) solved the problem of succession, temporarily. -The Umayyads were ranked some of the most prominent of Meccan merchant clans -They brought stability to the Islamic community through their reputation and network of alliences -They established the capital at Damascus, which was a commercial city in Syria -The central location kept better communication with the empire -Fellow Arabs were favored, which created an administrative problem -They ruled surrounding areas as conquerors and favored Arab military aristocracy -They appointed members of that group as governors and administrators and distributed wealth to them. E. Policy Towards Conquered Peoples -Favoring policies led to discontentment among ethnic and religous groups in the empire -Religous groups included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Buddhists -Ethnic groups included Indians, Persians, Mesopotamians, Greeks, Egyptians, and nomadic berbers in north Africa -For the most part conquered people were allowed to observe their own religion, but they levied a special tax called jizya on those who didn't convert to Islam -Even if they did convert, they did not share any authority or wealth
F. Umayyad Decline -Early eight century the Umayyad caliphs became alienated from the other Arabs -They focused more on luxurious living as opposed to leadership of the umma -Faced resistance of the Shia faction mid century
The Abbasid Dynasty
A. Abu al-Abbas -Rebellion in Persia brought the end to the Umayyad -leader of rebellion was Abu al-Abbas, a descendant of Muhammad's uncle -supported the Shias -His supporters included Persian converts who disliked the favoritism shown to the Arab Muslims -in 740's CE Abu al-Abba and his supporters gained control of Persia and Mesopotamia -in 750 CE the army had a massive battle with Umayyad forces -The army held a banquet and there they arrested the Umayyads and killed them -Abu al-Abbas founded the Abbasid dynasty
B. The Abbasid Dynasty *It was a lot different from the umayyad -founded by Abu al-Abbas -much more comopolitan -did not show special favor to Arab military aristocracy -Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians played roles in wealth and power -was not a conquering dynasty -Battle of Talas river stopt Chinese Tang expansion, and spread Islam to the Turks -During the ninth and tenth centuries, Islam continued to spread but the caliphs had little to do with the expansion
C. Abbasid administration -Abbasids didn't conquer: instead they focused on dealing with their current empire -used Persian techniques to administer the empire -central authority came from Baghndad, and in provinces, governers represented the caliph -learned officials named ulama and qadis set moral standards and resolved disputes -not priests but had a formal education -Ulamas were scholars that wanted to develop public policies that alligned with the Quran and sharia -Qadis dealt with law cases and made decisions based on the Quaran and sharia -Together they helped maintain widespread observance of Islamic values -Abbasid caliphs kept an army and established bureaucratic ministries who dealt with taxation, finance, coinage, and postal services -maintained the roads inherited from the Sasanids
D. Harun al-Rashid -ruler (786-809 CE) during the high point of the society -By late eighth century the empire was stable enough to bring in reliable tax revenues from the majority of the empire -Baghdad became a center of banking, commerce, crafts, and industry -It had a population of several hundred thousand people -Harun al-Rashid supported artists and writers, giving expensive gifts to some of his favorites -He also gave money to the poor and common classes by tossing coins into the streets of Baghdad
E. Abbasid Decline -al-Rashid's sons often tried to build up power and secede -There were frequent arguments over succession rights, which became a serious problem -Governors used the disorder to act independently of the caliphs -often popular uprisings, peasant rebellions, dissenting sects, and heretical movements --Abbasid caliphs became mere figureheads -945 CE, Pesian noble families got control behind the throne -Baghdad allied with the Saljuq turkls from central Asia to quell rebellions -the Saljuq turks converted to Islam and took control of Islam, with the caliphs as nominal rulers -Until the Mongol conquers in 1258, the Saljuq sultan ruled
Economy and Society of the Early Islamic World
-Peasants tilled the land while manufacturers and merchants supported the booming urban economy
-The empires had a huge effect on the economy, creating large trade zones
New Crops, Agricultural Experimentation, and Urban Growth
A. The Spread of Food and Industrial Crops -as administrators, soldiers, diplomats, and merchants traveled through dar al-Islam, they encountered plants, animals, and agricultural techniques -useful crops were sorghum, wheat, sugarcane, rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes, cotton, indigo, and henna
B. Effects of New crops -richer and more varied diet -More crops allowed for larger quantities of food -new crops allowed some previous non-summer growing land to be used year round -Some crops had industrial uses, especially cotton -Became the basis for a thriving textile industry throughout a huge portion of the Islamic world -Indigo and henna were used as dyes that textile manufacturers used
C. Agricultural Experimentation -Cultivators paid close attention to irrigation methods, fertilization, crop rotation, and created manuals
-created a very productive agricultural society to support vigorous economic growth
D. Urban Growth
-the increased growth created cities from India to Spain
-Some cities were Delhi, Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv , Nishapur, Isfahan, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, Palermo, Tunis, Tangier, Cordoba, and Toleda
-some had hundreds of thousands of people
-flourishing artisans, craftsman, an merchants
-important centers for textiles, pottery glassware, leather, iron, and steel
-paper manufacturing was taken from the Chinese at the battle of the Talas river in 751
-paper helped the keeping of administrative and commercial records
-also allowed for large quantities of books and treaties
The Formation of a Hemispheric Trazing Zone
-Muhammad held merchants in high esteem
-by the time of the Abbasid, there were elaborate trade networks
A. Overland trade
-After overrunning the Sasanids, trading cities were linked, and a revived silk road was used.
-Umayyad and Abbasid rulers used the roads for military and administrative, but they were also quite good for merchants
B. Camels and Caravans
-this is how overland occured
-uncooperative and unpleasant, but can carry heavy loads with saddles, and can endure the riggors of desert travel
-Manufacturers began making camel saddles
-along roads became caravserais, inns for caravan merchants
C. Maritime Trade
-with innovations in nautical technology such as the Chinese compass, the Asain Indian triangular latteen sail, and the Hellenistic Mediterranean latitude calculating astrolobe, Arab and Persian mariners ventured throughout the Indian Ocean
-arrived at ports in southeast Asia, India, Persia, Arabia, and the eastern coast of Africa
-a Persian merchant named Ramisht of Siraf obtained a huge fortune from a trading venture
-He founded hospitals and religious sanctuaries in Mecca
D. Banks
-banks existed before, bu Islamic Abbasid banks operated on a much larger scale
-not only lent money, but served a s brokers for investments and different currencies
-created letters of credit, sakk, the root of the check, which helped for dealing with distant land with different currencies
-Banks in the Islamic world offered new services that helped trade
E. The Organization of Trade
-like with banking, business organization techniques were taken from ones used in classical Mediterranean society and then refined
-Islamic laws provided security for entrepreneurs by recognizing certain forms of business organization
-solo ventures were risky, but group investments were made official, so the economy surged
-Group investments made the risks fewer, person to person
-Some chose to invest money in enterprises
-Long-distance trade was extremely successful due to improved transportation, better banking services, and refined techniques of business organization
-Muslim merchants got silk and ceramics from China, spices and aromatics from India and southeast Asia, and jewelry and textiles from the Byzantine empire.
-They later crossed the Sahara to trade salt, steel, copper, and glass in exchange for gold and slaves from west Africa
-Also traded with east Africa, Russia, and Scandinavia
-All this trade helped establish networks of communication in the eastern hemisphere
F. Al-Andalus
-Islamic Spain, al-Andalus, and its prosperity shows the far reaching effects of Abbasid long distance trade
-by eighth century most of the Iberian peninsula had fallen into the hands of Muslim Berber conquerors
-the governors were Umayyads refusing to recognize the Abbasid dynasty, beginning to separate in the tenth century (at this time they began recognizing themselves as caliphs)
-participated actively in the commercial life of the larger Islamic world despite political tensions
-They imported crops, increasing the supply of food and enriching their diets
-This allowed merchants to have thriving businesses
-al-Andalus traded ceramics, painted tiles, lead crystal, and gold jewelry
The Changing Status of Women
-often in Arabian society, while it was patriarchal, women enjoyed rights that were not present in other societies like inheriting property, divorcing husbands on their own wishes, and engaging in business
-Khadija, Muhammad's first wife, managed a successful commercial business
A. The Quran and Women
-In some ways the Quran enhanced life for women in Arabian society
-The Quran provided that there is no female infanticide, that dowries went to bride, and they were to be treated honorable, and equally
-It recognized that women were equal to men before Allah
-Yet, Quran also said that while women were treated with respect, they should be under the strict control of males, and men could have up to four wives
-The Quran recognized descent throught the male line
-Women's social and sexual lives were under strict control of males guardians (fathers, brothers, husbands)
B. Veiling of Women
-Islam encountered veils when conquering the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, and adopted the practices of veils
-Mesopotamian society encouraged women to veil themselves as early as thirteenth century BCE
-Women wore veils and were chaperoned outside of the home to discourage attention from men from other families
-This practice was adopted when Muslim Arabs conquered Mesopotamia, Persia, and eastern Mediteerranean lands
-Over the centuries, jurists and legal scholars interpreted the Quran in ways that progressively limited the rights for women
-This strongly male dominated society reflected the societies of Mesopotamia and Persia
Islamic Values and Cultural Exchanges
-Quran was cornerstone of Islamic society since 700 ce
-Quran in Arabic text is often regarded as the only definitive and reliable scripture
The Formation of an Islamic Cultural Tradition
-The body of civil and criminal law in the sharia provided a measure of cultural unity for the different lands of the Islamic world
-lent to the concept of dar al-Islam
A. Promotion of Islamic Values
-Ulama, qadis, and missionaries bridged differences
-"In kingdoms, ulama, who provided political and religous legitimacy were religious scholars, qadis (judges), lawyers, seminary teachers, and the prayer leaders (imams) of the mosques." (Country Studies)
-THis resolved disputes by setting an Islamic law according to sharia
-Mormal educational institutions promoted Islam values
-Mosques maintained schools, and by the tenth century, higher education centers named as madrasas appeared
-this helped to gain literate and learned stutends with both Islamic theiology and law for administrative positions
B. Sufis
-The Sufis were mystics, Islamic missionaries
-Sufi came from patched woolen garments
-did not deny Islamic doctrine, but also did not like formal religon
-often led ascetic lives, devoded to helping the poor
-some Muslim theologians said that their lack of concern for the doctrene would lead to erronious beliefs, but after 900 CE, they became popular with their piety, and devotion
C. Al-Ghazali
-The Persian theologian al-Ghazali (1058-1111), sid that human reason was to frail to understand Allah.
-only by analyzing the Quran could humans appreciate Allah, and philogophy and human resoning were vain persuits.
D. Sufi Missionaries
-Sufi Missionaries emphasized devotion to Allah instead of doctrine, and this became quite popular, as it was open to adaptation.
-their ascetic and holy lives won the respect of the people of to who they presached.
-their converting even gained popularity in lands like Persia and India, displacing other religions of salvation Question 7
E. The hajj
-The Ka'ba at Mecca became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
-Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
-Islam and the cultural traditions of Persia, India, and Greece
-Inns were built along main roads to Mecca
F. Persian influence on Islam -At an early date fell under Islamic rule, especially after the establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty, and the founding of its capital Baghdad -Most notable of Persian influence is found in literary works
-Administrative techniques borrowed from Sasanids
-Ideas of kingship: wise, benevolent, absolute, foundly influenced Islamic political thought
G. Indian influences -Adopted "Hindi numerals," which Europeans later called "Arabic numerals"
-Algebra, geometry and trigonometry
-Indian numerals simplified bookkeeping for Muslim merchants
-Appreciated scientific and medical thought they encountered in India
-With the aid of math, developed Muslim astronomy
H. Greek influences -Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle
-Ibn Rushd (Averroës) turned to Aristotle in twelfth century
-Ibn Rushd's work helped to shape Islamic philosophy and also made its way into schools and universities in western Europe
-Conservative theologian, Sufi al-Ghazali considered Greek philosophy to be an unreliable guide to ultimate truth, since it relied on frail human reason rather than the revelation of the Quran Question 8
Interactions Between Humans and the Environment
-Roads were created for long distance trade, especially when the Islam took over the Sasanids
-inns were built along these roads
-administrative officials, military, and merchants traveled along these roads with camel caravans, who allowed them to travel in the rough environment
*Maritime trade also thrived, especially with the adoption of the Chinese compass
*There was a lot of urban expansion, leading to many cities being built, such as the Abbasid court of Baghdad, which was a round city protected by three round walls
*New crops and agricultural techniques lead to adaptation to the land
-As the summers are hot and dry, many cultivators used to not grow anything during the summer, but imported plants from trading led to year round tilling
-Cultivators started to use methods such as irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, and created manuals which benefitted the future
Development and Interaction of Cultures
*Early Arabian Peninsula religion and social structure was family based and involved multiple deities, gods, goddesses, and nature spirits
*Muhammad became enlightened at the age of 40, and started Islam, where an omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent god named Allah ruled Supreme
-understood that the god of Jews and Christians were the same, but believed that his visions of Allah from Gabriel provided for a more complete picture
-gained influence from Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism
-When conquering, often conquered people were persuaded to join Islam
*A cultural system was put into place that was based on the sharia and led substance to the idea of dar al-Islam.
-ulama, qadis, and missionaries rested differences in cultural traditions throughout the expansive Islam community.
-schools were set up in mosques, later named as madrasas, and provided students with an education in Islamic theory, and law, helped by paper
-Sufis, who deepened their spiritual awareness with an ascetic lifestyle instead of formal religious teachings helped spread Islam and gain converts
-by emphasizing devotion to Allah above mastery of doctrine, their ideas spread well in that it was open to adaptation
State-Building, Expansion, and Conflict
*Muhammad and his followers were exiled from Mecca to Yathrib, which they named Medina.
-due to elites being affronted by Muhammad saying that greed was a sin
-offended polytheistic people
*In Medina, Muhammad had to exemplify great leadership, creating umma, a good Muslim community
-waged war, and eventually conquered Islam
*through various rulers, Islam came to rule most of the Arabian Peninsula.
-did not force conquered people to convert to Islam, bud did impose a tax on non-Muslims
-After Muhammad, Aku Bakr, others, than Ali of the Shia, the Umayyad took over
*The Umayyad were ranked some of the most prominent of Mecca merchant clans
-They brought stability to the Islamic community through their reputation and network of alliances
-They established the capital at Damascus, which was a commercial city in Syria
-The central location kept better communication with the empire
-Fellow Arabs were favored, which created an administrative problem
-highly centralized rule
-They ruled surrounding areas as conquerors and favored Arab military aristocracy
-They appointed members of that group as governors and administrators and distributed wealth to them.
*Rebellion in Persia brought the Umayyad to an end, led by Abu al-Abbas, a descendent of Muhammad's uncle
-he allied with the Shia even though he was of the common Sunni Arab
-very popular to Persian converts angry at the Umayyad's bias with ruling position
*Abu al-Abbas created the Abbasid dynasty which played a large role and was more cosmopolitan
-treated other demographics more equally
-focused more on administration
--After Harun al-Rashid's reign, who was the best caliph, is sons created problems by building bases of power and sometimes separating
-Caliphs became figureheads before the Mongols exterminated the dynasty in 1258. In 945, Persians took control of Baghdad, and were the power of the Abbasid throne
-Later, the Saljug Turks, nomads from central Asia, allied with the Abbasid and converted to Islam
-they took over Baghdad, and extended power to Syria, Palestine, and Anatolia
-while there were caliphs, the Saljuq sultan was the power source in this period of the Abbasid empire
Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems
*Under the Umayyad, merchant clans ruled, and their reputation and network alliances brought economic stability
-their tactics supported the Arab military aristocracy
*There was a spread of new crops, agricultural experimentation, and urban growth
-useful crops were introduced leading to a more rich and varied diet
-crops had industrial uses and techniques were used to adapt to the weather
-agricultural society led to cities that formed such as Delhi Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv, Nishapur, Isfahan, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, Palermo, Tunis, Tangier, Cordoba, and Toledo
-cities led to specialization for trade and artisans, craftsman, and merchants leading to textiles, pottery, glassware, leather, iron, and steel
-Arab forced defeated the Chinese in the battle of the Talas River in 751, and learned the Chinese art of making paper (who discovered it in the first century CE)
*Also, Islam expansion led to the formation of a hemispheric trading zone
-Muhammad once said that merchants would stand alongside martyrs
-after conquering the Sasanids, roads were connected, leading to a revived silk roads
-both for military forces and administrative officials and missionaries and pilgrims
-imported ice
-overland trade was done by camels as they were tough, and inns were built
-maritime innovations led to good maritime trade, adopting the Chinese compass
*Banking stimulated the commercial economy of the Islam world
-they were special as they created sakk- sheets for credit and the modern day equivalent day of a check allowing merchants to settle accounts with distant business partners without having to deal in cash
-There were Organization of Trade
--investors often did not wish to tackle a business alone, but the Abbasids allowed official structures for entrepreneurs and businessmen to make deals and business ideas in group ventures
-led to networks of communication throughout a lot of the east hemisphere
Development and Transformation of Social Structures
-Early on, there were cities ruled by wealthy elites
-When Muhammad took over, he placed power with merchants, as he was one
-Under the Umayyad, those with Islam faith had a higher standard of living than other conquered people, and showed favor to the Arab military aristocracy
-Under the Abbasids, there was a more cosmopolitan dynasty, as other conquered people could also gain power
-In Abbasid kingdoms, ulama, who provided political and religious legitimacy were religious scholars, qadis (judges), lawyers, seminary teachers, and the prayer leaders (imams) of the mosques.
*Women were treated differently.
-often in Arabian society, while it was patriarchal, women enjoyed rights that were not present in other societies like inheriting property, divorcing husbands on their own wishes, and engaging in business
-The Quran provided that there is no female infanticide, that dowries went to bride, and they were to be treated honorable, and equally
-Yet, Quran also said that while women were treated with respect, they should be under the strict control of males, and men could have multiple husbands
-Islam encountered veils when conquering the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, and adopted the practices of veils
Chronology, Years are in C.E.
570-632
Life of Muhammad
600
Muhammad establishes self as successful merchant in Arabian Society
620
Belief in 1 god, Allah, and only 1 god starts to expand throughout Mecca.
622
Muhammad flees Mecca. The hijra
630
Muhammad and followers attack and conquer Mecca.
632
Muhammad leads first pilgrimage to Ka'ba. The first hajj
633-637
Islamic armies seize Byzantine, Syria, Palestine and most of Mesopotamia from Sasanids.
640s
Conquered Byzantine, Egypt and N. Africa.
650s
Compilation of the Quran
651
Took over Sasanid dynasty and put Persia into expanding empire.
651-750
Umayyad dynasty
656-661
Ali Bakr serves as fourth caliph.
711
Conquered Hindu kingdom, Sind in northwestern India.
711-718
Extended to Northwest Africa, Strait of Gibraltar, Iberian peninsula and Frankish kingdom in Gaul.
740-750
Abu-al Abbas seizes control of Persia and Mesopotamia from Umayyad dynasty.
750
Empire stretched from India to central Asia steppes to Africa and Iberia.
750-1258
Abbasid dynasty
751
Battle of Talas River
786-809
Reign of Harun al-Rashid and a high point in the Abbasid dynasty.
800-1000
Collections of hadith appear. Early interpretations of the Quran.
945
Persian Noble family seizes Bagdad and establishes clan as power behind Abbasid throne.
1050s
Establishment of Saljuq control over the Abbasid dynasty
The Expansive Realm Of Islam
*Islam means "submission," signifying obedience to the rule and will of Allah, the only deity recognized in the strictly Monotheistic religion.
*Muslim is "one who has submitted"
-began as one man's unqualified faith in Allah, but spread rapidly, making Islam stand alongside the Byzantine empire
*Islamic society changed over time.
-originally reflected the nomadic Arabians
-influenced by other societies, including Persians, Greeks, Indians
-created a new society from this blend
-transformed absorbed traditions, creating a larger society called dar al-Islam- "The House of Islam," or areas under Islamic rule.
Prophet and His World
*Islam rose in the Arabian peninsula and reflected the conditions of the homeland.-desert covers most of the peninsula
-agriculture only possible in Yemen in the south and oases like Medina
-people cope by being nomads, a.k.a. bedouins, who organized in family and clan groups
-family and clan bond very strong
*Arabia was prominent in long-distance trade.
-goods came in on ports by the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Red Sea, and were transported by camels to Palmyra and Damascus giving access to the Mediterranean.
-After 300 CE, important link between the east China and India with the Persia and Byzantine as sea routes became more popular when the classical empires weakened.
Question 1:
Muhammad and His Message
A. Muhammad's Early Life
*Muhammad ibn Abdullah is born into the nomadic Bedouin 570 CE to merchants in Mecca, loosing both parents by 6.
-after a tough childhood, worked for a wealthy widow, Khadija, and married her in 595
-gained a bit in social prominence with this
*Muhammad became a merchant by thirty.
-saw people of different religious and cultural traditions, from gods, goddesses, demons, and nature spirits, to the Jewish merchants, to the north prominent Christianity
-in a basic sense, understood Judaism and Christianity
B. Muhammad's Spiritual Transformation
*Approaching 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad had visions from archangel Gabriel, God's messenger, giving messages and revelations from Allah.
-the visions started after "period of seclusion on a mountaintop near Mecca" (ABC-CLIO)
-convinced worshiping and recognizing god is wicked
-Allah soon will bring judgement, rewarding the righteous and punishing the wicked
-did not set out to combine Arab, Jewish and Christian religions, but these three, along with Zoroastrianism, influenced Islam
*He spread his faith to family and friends leading to a zealous and expanding minority in Mecca by 620 CE.
Question 2
C. The Quran
*He originally presented orally, but followers created texts of Muhammad's teachings.
*In early 650s, they were compiled and issued as the poetry-styled, moving, holy book of Islam, the Quran ("recitation")
-other guidance texts are the hadith, sayings of Muhammad and his deeds, appearing between 900 to 1100 CE as Quran Gides
-other documents described Muhammad's life, customs, and commentaries
-114 chapters are in the Quran
Muhammad's Migration to Medina
A. Conflict at Mecca
*Others were troubled with Islam's growth.
-truck polytheistic Arabs as offensive and dangerous
-wealthy ruling merchants were riled at Muhammad's denouncing of greed as wickedness that would be punished
-attack on idolatry is economic treats to owners of shrines attracting pilgrims, including Ka'ba's (a cube shaped building) immensely popular shrine.
-led to persecution in Mecca
B. The Hijra
*Some followers fled to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia).
*Muhammad stayed in Mecca until 622 BCE, until he fled to Yathrib, a rival trading city 314 km north of Mecca
-names city Medina ("the city of the prophet")
-known as the hijra ("migration"), and is starting point of the Islamic calendar.
Question 3
C. The Umma
*In Mecca, Muhammad focused on the moral and religious dimensions of his faith, but in Medina, he needed to provide practical guidance to his exiled follower too.
*Created umma ("Commujnity of the Faithful") with a social and legal code
-cared for people in the umma, led in daily prayers, battled Mecca as enemies, and provided for the poor
-made charity important
D. The "Seal of the Prophets"
*In Medina, Muhammad began to refer to him self as "the seal of the prophets" - the final prophet through whom Allah would reveal his message to humankind
-accepted beliefs of Jewish and Christian prophets like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, along with their texts and monotheism, as Allah seemed to be the same God.
-yet, Muhammad's message was a more complete revelation of Allah and his will
Question 4
Excerpt: The Quran on Allah and His Expectations of Human Kind
-Allah is benevolent and merciful
-God has forgiveness and rewards to those who are believers, devout, truthful, enduring, modest, alm giving, fast, guide private parts, and Remember god.
-Muhammad is the apostle of God
-The lord cares for you, and believes in helping you
-God is created by no one and can do anything
The Establishment of Islam in Arabia
A. Muhammad's Return to Mecca
*Muhammad ultimately planned to return to Mecca-both their home and leading city of Arabia
-630 Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca, forcing elites to worship and dedicate th
emselves to Allah
-all pagan shrines were destroyed and replaced with mosques except for the Ka'ba
-Ka'ba preserved, not because it was the home of the deity, but as a symbol of Mecca's greatness
-Muhammad made the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba in 632 (the first hajj)
-this "former idol sanctuary [became] a shrine and pilgrimage point for Muslims" (ABC-CLIO)
-his established the hajj, and by the time of the prophet's death, Muhammad's conquered most of Arabia
B. The Five Pillars of Islam
*These are the Islamic faith foundations.
1)Muslims must acknowledge Allah as the only god and Muhammad as his prophet
2)They must pray to Allah daily while facing Mecca
3) They must observe a fast during daylight hours of the month of Ramadan.
4)They must contribute alms for the relief of the weak and poor.
5) Finally, in honor of Muhammad's visits to Mecca in 629 and 632, those who are physically and financially able must undertake the hajj and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca
-many schools and sects arose, but the five pillars are the basic binding to the umma
C. Jihad
*Some believe jihad ("struggle") is an additional obligation.
-some say it requires them to combat vice and evil
-others say they should go against ignorance and unbelief by seeking converts
-some say Muslims should wage war against unbelievers
Question 5
D. Islamic Law: The Sharia
*The sharia is the Islamic holy law, beyond the basic Five Pillars.
-drew inspirations by Quran and Muhammad's life
-gives guidance
-transformed Islam into a way of life, more than religion (like the 10 Commandments of Christianity)
The Expansion of Islam
*Muhammad's death (632) unraveled the religion temporarily. He also made no plans for a predecessor.-many towns and bedouin clans took his death as a chance to renounce the faith and break free from Mecca
-soon the Islamic community underwent military expansion to expand political and social influence past Arabia
The Early Caliphs and the Umayyad Dynasty
A. The Caliph-Muhammad's advisors chose Abu Bakr, a close friend of Muhammad, to serve as caliph (deputy)
-he led the umma not as a prophet but as a substitute for Muhammad
-he became head of state for Islamic community, chief judge, religious leader, and military commander
-Under Bakr, bedouin clans and towns were almost forced to recognize faith of Islam again
B. The Expansion of Islam
-they carried the religion and authority to Byzantine and Sasanid territories
-attacked when empires were exhausted from conflicts with each other and when facing internal uprisings
-633-637CE Muslims seized Byzantine Syria and Palestine and took most of Mesopotamia from the Sasanids
-640'sCE they conquered Byzantine Egypt and north Africa
-651 they ended the Sasanid dynasty and gained control of Persia
-711 they conquered the Hindu kingdom of Sind in northwestern India
-711-718 they extended their authority to northwestern Africa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltor, conquering most of the Iberian peninsula and threatened the Frankish kingdom in Gaul
-By the mid eighth century there was a huge Islamic empire
-However, soon they faced problems with governance and administration
-A big problem was the selection of caliphs
-First after Muhammad's death, the caliphs were determined by the most powerful Arab clans
-Soon political ambitions, personal differences, and clan loyalties complicated the decisions
-These complications resulted in factions and parties in the Islamic community
C. The Shia
-The complications led to the Shia sect
-This sect is the most important and enduring version of the faith observed by a majority of Muslims, known as Sunni Islam.
-It originated as a party supporting the appointment of Ali and his descendants as caliphs
-Ali was a cousin and son in law of Muhammad
-He served as the fourth caliph from 656-661CE, but his enemies killed him, killed many of his relatives, and imposed their own candidate as caliph
-The Shia party wanted to return the caliphate to the line of Ali
-It survived by adopting doctrines and rituals from the Sunnis (traditionalists)- the accepted the legitimacy of the early caliphs
-Shia partisans observed holy days for leaders and taught that the descedants of Ali were infallible, sinless, and divinely appointed to rule the Islamic community
Question 6
D. The Umayyad Dynasty
-The establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750CE) solved the problem of succession, temporarily.
-The Umayyads were ranked some of the most prominent of Meccan merchant clans
-They brought stability to the Islamic community through their reputation and network of alliences
-They established the capital at Damascus, which was a commercial city in Syria
-The central location kept better communication with the empire
-Fellow Arabs were favored, which created an administrative problem
-They ruled surrounding areas as conquerors and favored Arab military aristocracy
-They appointed members of that group as governors and administrators and distributed wealth to them.
E. Policy Towards Conquered Peoples
-Favoring policies led to discontentment among ethnic and religous groups in the empire
-Religous groups included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Buddhists
-Ethnic groups included Indians, Persians, Mesopotamians, Greeks, Egyptians, and nomadic berbers in north Africa
-For the most part conquered people were allowed to observe their own religion, but they levied a special tax called jizya on those who didn't convert to Islam
-Even if they did convert, they did not share any authority or wealth
F. Umayyad Decline
-Early eight century the Umayyad caliphs became alienated from the other Arabs
-They focused more on luxurious living as opposed to leadership of the umma
-Faced resistance of the Shia faction mid century
The Abbasid Dynasty
A. Abu al-Abbas
-Rebellion in Persia brought the end to the Umayyad
-leader of rebellion was Abu al-Abbas, a descendant of Muhammad's uncle
-supported the Shias
-His supporters included Persian converts who disliked the favoritism shown to the Arab Muslims
-in 740's CE Abu al-Abba and his supporters gained control of Persia and Mesopotamia
-in 750 CE the army had a massive battle with Umayyad forces
-The army held a banquet and there they arrested the Umayyads and killed them
-Abu al-Abbas founded the Abbasid dynasty
B. The Abbasid Dynasty
*It was a lot different from the umayyad
-founded by Abu al-Abbas
-much more comopolitan
-did not show special favor to Arab military aristocracy
-Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians played roles in wealth and power
-was not a conquering dynasty
-Battle of Talas river stopt Chinese Tang expansion, and spread Islam to the Turks
-During the ninth and tenth centuries, Islam continued to spread but the caliphs had little to do with the expansion
C. Abbasid administration
-Abbasids didn't conquer: instead they focused on dealing with their current empire
-used Persian techniques to administer the empire
-central authority came from Baghndad, and in provinces, governers represented the caliph
-learned officials named ulama and qadis set moral standards and resolved disputes -not priests but had a formal education
-Ulamas were scholars that wanted to develop public policies that alligned with the Quran and sharia
-Qadis dealt with law cases and made decisions based on the Quaran and sharia
-Together they helped maintain widespread observance of Islamic values
-Abbasid caliphs kept an army and established bureaucratic ministries who dealt with taxation, finance, coinage, and postal services
-maintained the roads inherited from the Sasanids
D. Harun al-Rashid
-ruler (786-809 CE) during the high point of the society
-By late eighth century the empire was stable enough to bring in reliable tax revenues from the majority of the empire
-Baghdad became a center of banking, commerce, crafts, and industry
-It had a population of several hundred thousand people
-Harun al-Rashid supported artists and writers, giving expensive gifts to some of his favorites
-He also gave money to the poor and common classes by tossing coins into the streets of Baghdad
E. Abbasid Decline
-al-Rashid's sons often tried to build up power and secede
-There were frequent arguments over succession rights, which became a serious problem
-Governors used the disorder to act independently of the caliphs
-often popular uprisings, peasant rebellions, dissenting sects, and heretical movements
--Abbasid caliphs became mere figureheads
-945 CE, Pesian noble families got control behind the throne
-Baghdad allied with the Saljuq turkls from central Asia to quell rebellions
-the Saljuq turks converted to Islam and took control of Islam, with the caliphs as nominal rulers
-Until the Mongol conquers in 1258, the Saljuq sultan ruled
Economy and Society of the Early Islamic World
-Peasants tilled the land while manufacturers and merchants supported the booming urban economy-The empires had a huge effect on the economy, creating large trade zones
New Crops, Agricultural Experimentation, and Urban Growth
A. The Spread of Food and Industrial Crops
-as administrators, soldiers, diplomats, and merchants traveled through dar al-Islam, they encountered plants, animals, and agricultural techniques
-useful crops were sorghum, wheat, sugarcane, rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes, cotton, indigo, and henna
B. Effects of New crops
-richer and more varied diet
-More crops allowed for larger quantities of food
-new crops allowed some previous non-summer growing land to be used year round
-Some crops had industrial uses, especially cotton
-Became the basis for a thriving textile industry throughout a huge portion of the Islamic world
-Indigo and henna were used as dyes that textile manufacturers used
C. Agricultural Experimentation
-Cultivators paid close attention to irrigation methods, fertilization, crop rotation, and created manuals
-created a very productive agricultural society to support vigorous economic growth
D. Urban Growth
-the increased growth created cities from India to Spain
-Some cities were Delhi, Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv , Nishapur, Isfahan, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, Palermo, Tunis, Tangier, Cordoba, and Toleda
-some had hundreds of thousands of people
-flourishing artisans, craftsman, an merchants
-important centers for textiles, pottery glassware, leather, iron, and steel
-paper manufacturing was taken from the Chinese at the battle of the Talas river in 751
-paper helped the keeping of administrative and commercial records
-also allowed for large quantities of books and treaties
The Formation of a Hemispheric Trazing Zone
-Muhammad held merchants in high esteem-by the time of the Abbasid, there were elaborate trade networks
A. Overland trade
-After overrunning the Sasanids, trading cities were linked, and a revived silk road was used.
-Umayyad and Abbasid rulers used the roads for military and administrative, but they were also quite good for merchants
B. Camels and Caravans
-this is how overland occured
-uncooperative and unpleasant, but can carry heavy loads with saddles, and can endure the riggors of desert travel
-Manufacturers began making camel saddles
-along roads became caravserais, inns for caravan merchants
C. Maritime Trade
-with innovations in nautical technology such as the Chinese compass, the Asain Indian triangular latteen sail, and the Hellenistic Mediterranean latitude calculating astrolobe, Arab and Persian mariners ventured throughout the Indian Ocean
-arrived at ports in southeast Asia, India, Persia, Arabia, and the eastern coast of Africa
-a Persian merchant named Ramisht of Siraf obtained a huge fortune from a trading venture
-He founded hospitals and religious sanctuaries in Mecca
D. Banks
-banks existed before, bu Islamic Abbasid banks operated on a much larger scale
-not only lent money, but served a s brokers for investments and different currencies
-created letters of credit, sakk, the root of the check, which helped for dealing with distant land with different currencies
-Banks in the Islamic world offered new services that helped trade
E. The Organization of Trade
-like with banking, business organization techniques were taken from ones used in classical Mediterranean society and then refined
-Islamic laws provided security for entrepreneurs by recognizing certain forms of business organization
-solo ventures were risky, but group investments were made official, so the economy surged
-Group investments made the risks fewer, person to person
-Some chose to invest money in enterprises
-Long-distance trade was extremely successful due to improved transportation, better banking services, and refined techniques of business organization
-Muslim merchants got silk and ceramics from China, spices and aromatics from India and southeast Asia, and jewelry and textiles from the Byzantine empire.
-They later crossed the Sahara to trade salt, steel, copper, and glass in exchange for gold and slaves from west Africa
-Also traded with east Africa, Russia, and Scandinavia
-All this trade helped establish networks of communication in the eastern hemisphere
F. Al-Andalus
-Islamic Spain, al-Andalus, and its prosperity shows the far reaching effects of Abbasid long distance trade
-by eighth century most of the Iberian peninsula had fallen into the hands of Muslim Berber conquerors
-the governors were Umayyads refusing to recognize the Abbasid dynasty, beginning to separate in the tenth century (at this time they began recognizing themselves as caliphs)
-participated actively in the commercial life of the larger Islamic world despite political tensions
-They imported crops, increasing the supply of food and enriching their diets
-This allowed merchants to have thriving businesses
-al-Andalus traded ceramics, painted tiles, lead crystal, and gold jewelry
The Changing Status of Women
-often in Arabian society, while it was patriarchal, women enjoyed rights that were not present in other societies like inheriting property, divorcing husbands on their own wishes, and engaging in business-Khadija, Muhammad's first wife, managed a successful commercial business
A. The Quran and Women
-In some ways the Quran enhanced life for women in Arabian society
-The Quran provided that there is no female infanticide, that dowries went to bride, and they were to be treated honorable, and equally
-It recognized that women were equal to men before Allah
-Yet, Quran also said that while women were treated with respect, they should be under the strict control of males, and men could have up to four wives
-The Quran recognized descent throught the male line
-Women's social and sexual lives were under strict control of males guardians (fathers, brothers, husbands)
B. Veiling of Women
-Islam encountered veils when conquering the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, and adopted the practices of veils
-Mesopotamian society encouraged women to veil themselves as early as thirteenth century BCE
-Women wore veils and were chaperoned outside of the home to discourage attention from men from other families
-This practice was adopted when Muslim Arabs conquered Mesopotamia, Persia, and eastern Mediteerranean lands
-Over the centuries, jurists and legal scholars interpreted the Quran in ways that progressively limited the rights for women
-This strongly male dominated society reflected the societies of Mesopotamia and Persia
Islamic Values and Cultural Exchanges
-Quran was cornerstone of Islamic society since 700 ce-Quran in Arabic text is often regarded as the only definitive and reliable scripture
The Formation of an Islamic Cultural Tradition
-The body of civil and criminal law in the sharia provided a measure of cultural unity for the different lands of the Islamic world-lent to the concept of dar al-Islam
A. Promotion of Islamic Values
-Ulama, qadis, and missionaries bridged differences
-"In kingdoms, ulama, who provided political and religous legitimacy were religious scholars, qadis (judges), lawyers, seminary teachers, and the prayer leaders (imams) of the mosques." (Country Studies)
-THis resolved disputes by setting an Islamic law according to sharia
-Mormal educational institutions promoted Islam values
-Mosques maintained schools, and by the tenth century, higher education centers named as madrasas appeared
-this helped to gain literate and learned stutends with both Islamic theiology and law for administrative positions
B. Sufis
-The Sufis were mystics, Islamic missionaries
-Sufi came from patched woolen garments
-did not deny Islamic doctrine, but also did not like formal religon
-often led ascetic lives, devoded to helping the poor
-some Muslim theologians said that their lack of concern for the doctrene would lead to erronious beliefs, but after 900 CE, they became popular with their piety, and devotion
C. Al-Ghazali
-The Persian theologian al-Ghazali (1058-1111), sid that human reason was to frail to understand Allah.
-only by analyzing the Quran could humans appreciate Allah, and philogophy and human resoning were vain persuits.
D. Sufi Missionaries
-Sufi Missionaries emphasized devotion to Allah instead of doctrine, and this became quite popular, as it was open to adaptation.
-their ascetic and holy lives won the respect of the people of to who they presached.
-their converting even gained popularity in lands like Persia and India, displacing other religions of salvation
Question 7
E. The hajj
-The Ka'ba at Mecca became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
-Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
-Islam and the cultural traditions of Persia, India, and Greece
-Inns were built along main roads to Mecca
F. Persian influence on Islam
-At an early date fell under Islamic rule, especially after the establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty, and the founding of its capital Baghdad
-Most notable of Persian influence is found in literary works
-Administrative techniques borrowed from Sasanids
-Ideas of kingship: wise, benevolent, absolute, foundly influenced Islamic political thought
G. Indian influences
-Adopted "Hindi numerals," which Europeans later called "Arabic numerals"
-Algebra, geometry and trigonometry
-Indian numerals simplified bookkeeping for Muslim merchants
-Appreciated scientific and medical thought they encountered in India
-With the aid of math, developed Muslim astronomy
H. Greek influences
-Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle
-Ibn Rushd (Averroës) turned to Aristotle in twelfth century
-Ibn Rushd's work helped to shape Islamic philosophy and also made its way into schools and universities in western Europe
-Conservative theologian, Sufi al-Ghazali considered Greek philosophy to be an unreliable guide to ultimate truth, since it relied on frail human reason rather than the revelation of the Quran
Question 8
Sources
http://ancienthistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/600746?terms=muhammadhttp://quran.com/
http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/54.htm
Themes:
Interactions Between Humans and the Environment-Roads were created for long distance trade, especially when the Islam took over the Sasanids
-inns were built along these roads
-administrative officials, military, and merchants traveled along these roads with camel caravans, who allowed them to travel in the rough environment
*Maritime trade also thrived, especially with the adoption of the Chinese compass
*There was a lot of urban expansion, leading to many cities being built, such as the Abbasid court of Baghdad, which was a round city protected by three round walls
*New crops and agricultural techniques lead to adaptation to the land
-As the summers are hot and dry, many cultivators used to not grow anything during the summer, but imported plants from trading led to year round tilling
-Cultivators started to use methods such as irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, and created manuals which benefitted the future
Development and Interaction of Cultures
*Early Arabian Peninsula religion and social structure was family based and involved multiple deities, gods, goddesses, and nature spirits
*Muhammad became enlightened at the age of 40, and started Islam, where an omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent god named Allah ruled Supreme
-understood that the god of Jews and Christians were the same, but believed that his visions of Allah from Gabriel provided for a more complete picture
-gained influence from Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism
-When conquering, often conquered people were persuaded to join Islam
*A cultural system was put into place that was based on the sharia and led substance to the idea of dar al-Islam.
-ulama, qadis, and missionaries rested differences in cultural traditions throughout the expansive Islam community.
-schools were set up in mosques, later named as madrasas, and provided students with an education in Islamic theory, and law, helped by paper
-Sufis, who deepened their spiritual awareness with an ascetic lifestyle instead of formal religious teachings helped spread Islam and gain converts
-by emphasizing devotion to Allah above mastery of doctrine, their ideas spread well in that it was open to adaptation
State-Building, Expansion, and Conflict
*Muhammad and his followers were exiled from Mecca to Yathrib, which they named Medina.
-due to elites being affronted by Muhammad saying that greed was a sin
-offended polytheistic people
*In Medina, Muhammad had to exemplify great leadership, creating umma, a good Muslim community
-waged war, and eventually conquered Islam
*through various rulers, Islam came to rule most of the Arabian Peninsula.
-did not force conquered people to convert to Islam, bud did impose a tax on non-Muslims
-After Muhammad, Aku Bakr, others, than Ali of the Shia, the Umayyad took over
*The Umayyad were ranked some of the most prominent of Mecca merchant clans
-They brought stability to the Islamic community through their reputation and network of alliances
-They established the capital at Damascus, which was a commercial city in Syria
-The central location kept better communication with the empire
-Fellow Arabs were favored, which created an administrative problem
-highly centralized rule
-They ruled surrounding areas as conquerors and favored Arab military aristocracy
-They appointed members of that group as governors and administrators and distributed wealth to them.
*Rebellion in Persia brought the Umayyad to an end, led by Abu al-Abbas, a descendent of Muhammad's uncle
-he allied with the Shia even though he was of the common Sunni Arab
-very popular to Persian converts angry at the Umayyad's bias with ruling position
*Abu al-Abbas created the Abbasid dynasty which played a large role and was more cosmopolitan
-treated other demographics more equally
-focused more on administration
--After Harun al-Rashid's reign, who was the best caliph, is sons created problems by building bases of power and sometimes separating
-Caliphs became figureheads before the Mongols exterminated the dynasty in 1258. In 945, Persians took control of Baghdad, and were the power of the Abbasid throne
-Later, the Saljug Turks, nomads from central Asia, allied with the Abbasid and converted to Islam
-they took over Baghdad, and extended power to Syria, Palestine, and Anatolia
-while there were caliphs, the Saljuq sultan was the power source in this period of the Abbasid empire
Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems
*Under the Umayyad, merchant clans ruled, and their reputation and network alliances brought economic stability
-their tactics supported the Arab military aristocracy
*There was a spread of new crops, agricultural experimentation, and urban growth
-useful crops were introduced leading to a more rich and varied diet
-crops had industrial uses and techniques were used to adapt to the weather
-agricultural society led to cities that formed such as Delhi Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv, Nishapur, Isfahan, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, Palermo, Tunis, Tangier, Cordoba, and Toledo
-cities led to specialization for trade and artisans, craftsman, and merchants leading to textiles, pottery, glassware, leather, iron, and steel
-Arab forced defeated the Chinese in the battle of the Talas River in 751, and learned the Chinese art of making paper (who discovered it in the first century CE)
*Also, Islam expansion led to the formation of a hemispheric trading zone
-Muhammad once said that merchants would stand alongside martyrs
-after conquering the Sasanids, roads were connected, leading to a revived silk roads
-both for military forces and administrative officials and missionaries and pilgrims
-imported ice
-overland trade was done by camels as they were tough, and inns were built
-maritime innovations led to good maritime trade, adopting the Chinese compass
*Banking stimulated the commercial economy of the Islam world
-they were special as they created sakk- sheets for credit and the modern day equivalent day of a check allowing merchants to settle accounts with distant business partners without having to deal in cash
-There were Organization of Trade
--investors often did not wish to tackle a business alone, but the Abbasids allowed official structures for entrepreneurs and businessmen to make deals and business ideas in group ventures
-led to networks of communication throughout a lot of the east hemisphere
Development and Transformation of Social Structures
-Early on, there were cities ruled by wealthy elites
-When Muhammad took over, he placed power with merchants, as he was one
-Under the Umayyad, those with Islam faith had a higher standard of living than other conquered people, and showed favor to the Arab military aristocracy
-Under the Abbasids, there was a more cosmopolitan dynasty, as other conquered people could also gain power
-In Abbasid kingdoms, ulama, who provided political and religious legitimacy were religious scholars, qadis (judges), lawyers, seminary teachers, and the prayer leaders (imams) of the mosques.
*Women were treated differently.
-often in Arabian society, while it was patriarchal, women enjoyed rights that were not present in other societies like inheriting property, divorcing husbands on their own wishes, and engaging in business
-The Quran provided that there is no female infanticide, that dowries went to bride, and they were to be treated honorable, and equally
-Yet, Quran also said that while women were treated with respect, they should be under the strict control of males, and men could have multiple husbands
-Islam encountered veils when conquering the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, and adopted the practices of veils
Chronology, Years are in C.E.